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Standard edition of the Thai Pali Canon
The Pali Canon is the standard scripture collection of the Theravada Buddhist tradition, as preserved in the Pali language.Gombrich, Theravada Buddhism, 2nd edn, Routledge, London, 2006, page 3 The Canon was written down from oral tradition at the occasion of the Fourth Buddhist Council (in the usual Theravada numbering), 1st century BCE, in Sri LankaEncyclopedia of Religion, Macmillan, New York, sv Councils, Buddhist on ola (palm) leaves.A.K. Warder, Indian Buddhism, 3rd edn, page 307. American Asiatic Association, Asia Society, Asia: Journal of the American Asiatic Association, p724. Passed down in writing and to other Theravadin countries, this originally largely North IndianIf the language of the Pāli canon is north Indian in origin, and without substantial Sinhalese additions, it is likely that the canon was composed somewhere in north India before its introduction to Sri Lanka How old is the Sutta Pitaka?, Alexander Wynne, St. Johns\' College, 2003 Canon is the most complete surviving early Buddhist canon and one of the first to be written down.Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, Cambridge University Press, 1990, page 3.
The Canon was not printed until the nineteenth century, and is now also available in electronic form. Bechert & Gombrich, The World of Buddhism, Thames & Hudson, 1984, page 293
The Pali Canon falls into three general categories, called pitaka (piṭaka, basket) in Pali. Because of this, the canon is traditionally known as the Tipitaka (Tipiṭaka; three baskets).The three pitakas are as follows. Gombrich, page 4
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Dr Rupert Gethin says that the whole of Buddhist history may be regarded as a working out of the implications of the early scriptures.Gethin, Foundations of Buddhism, Oxford University Press, 1998, page 43 The Canon is traditionally described by the Theravada as the Word of the Buddha (Buddhavacana), though this is obviously not intended in a literal sense, since it includes teachings by disciples.Gombrich, page 20
The traditional Theravadin (Mahaviharin) interpretation is given in a series of commentaries covering nearly the whole Canon, compiled by Buddhaghosa (fourth or fifth century CE) and later monks, mainly on the basis of earlier materials now lost. Subcommentaries have been written, commenting further on the Canon and its commentaries. The traditional Theravadin interpretation is summarized in Buddhaghosa\'s Visuddhimagga.Gombrich, pages 153-4
An official view is given by a spokesman for the Buddha Sasana Council of Burma:Morgan, Path of the Buddha, Ronald Press, New York, 1956, pages v, 71 the Canon contains everything needed to show the path to nirvana; the commentaries and subcommentaries sometimes include much speculative matter, but are faithful to its teachings and often give very illuminating illustrations. In Sri Lanka and Thailand, "official" Buddhism has in large part adopted the interpretations of Western scholars.Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, volume 28 (part 2), page 302
Although the Canon has existed in written form for two millennia, its oral nature has not been forgotten in actual Buddhist practice within the tradition: memorization and recitation remain common. Among frequently recited texts are the Paritta. Even lay people usually know at least a few short texts by heart and recite them regularly; this is considered a form of meditation, at least if one understands the meaning. Monks are of course expected to know quite a bit more (see Dhammapada below for an example). A Burmese monk named Vicittasara even learnt the entire Canon by heart for the Sixth Council (again according to the usual Theravada numbering).Mendelson, Sangha and State in Burma, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York, 1975, page 266 Recitation is in Pali as the ritual language.Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, 2nd edn, volume 9, Elsevier, Amsterdam/Oxford, 2006
The relation of the scriptures to Buddhism as it actually exists among ordinary monks and lay people is, as with other major religious traditions, problematical: the evidence suggests that only parts of the Canon ever enjoyed wide currency, and that non-canonical works were sometimes very much more widely used; the details varied from place to place.Journal of the Pali Text Society, volume XV, pages 103f
According to the scriptures a council was held shortly after the Buddha\'s passing to collect and preserve his teachings. It is traditionally believed by Theravadins that most of the Pali Canon was recited orally from this time, with only a few later additions. Most scholars hold that much of the Pali Canon, being shared with other schools, goes back to the period before the early schools separated in about the fourth or third century BCE.
Concerning the attribution of the Pali Canon to the Buddha, three views are current amongst scholars:
Various scholars have voiced that some of the contents of the Pali Canon can (probably) be attributed to Gautama Buddha. Dr Richard GombrichAcademic Director of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies, former Boden Professor of Sanskrit at the University of Oxford and former President of the Pali Text Society thinks that the teachings (of the Vinaya and Sutta Pitakas) probably go back to the Buddha individuallyI am saying that there was a person called the Buddha, that the preachings probably go back to him individually - very few scholars actually say that - that we can learn more about what he meant, and that he was saying some very precise things. source: http://www.ordinarymind.net/Interviews/interview_jan2003.htm. Peter Harvey thinks much of the Pali Canon must derive from the Buddha himselfWhile parts of the Pali Canon clearly originated after the time of the Buddha, much must derive from his teaching. - An introduction to Buddhism, Peter Harvey, 1990, p.3.
J.W. de Jong has stated that parts of the Pali Canon could very well have been proclaimed by the Buddha, and subsequently transmitted and developed by his disciples and, finally, codified in fixed formulasIt would be hypocritical to assert that nothing can be said about the doctrine of earliest Buddhism ... the basic ideas of Buddhism found in the canonical writings could very well have been proclaimed by him [the Buddha], transmitted and developed by his disciples and, finally, codified in fixed formulas. J.W. De Jong, 1993: The Beginnings of Buddhism, in The Eastern Buddhist, vol. 26, no. 2, p. 25. A.K. Warder has stated that there is no evidence to suggest that the shared teaching of the early schools was formulated by anyone else than the Buddha and his immediate followersthere is no evidence to suggest that it was formulated by anyone else than the Buddha and his immediate followers. AK Warder, Indian Buddhism, 1999, 3rd edition, inside flap.. A. Wynne has said that the Pali Canon includes texts which go back to the very beginning of Buddhism, which perhaps include the substance of the Buddha’s teaching, and in some cases, maybe even his wordsIf some of the material is so old, it might be possible to establish what texts go back to the very beginning of Buddhism, texts which perhaps include the substance of the Buddha’s teaching, and in some cases, maybe even his words, How old is the Suttapitaka? Alexander Wynne, St John’s College, 2003. [www.ocbs.org/research/Wynne.pdf]. Peter Harvey states that there is an overall harmony to the Canon, suggesting \'authorship\' of its system of thought by one mindthere is an overall harmony to the Canon, suggesting \'authorship\' of its system of thought by one mind - An introduction to Buddhism, Peter Harvey, 1990, p.3.
Dr Gregory Schopen Professor of Sanskrit, Tibetan, and Buddhist Studies at the University of Texas at Austin, arguesBones, Stones, and Buddhist Monks, University of Hawai\'i Press, 1997, page 24 (reprinted from Studien zur Indologie und Iranistik, volume 10 (1985)) that it is not until the fifth to sixth centuries CE that we can know anything definite about the contents of the Canon. This position did not attract much support, and was criticized by A. Wynne.How old is the Sutta Pitaka? - Alexander Wynne, St John’s College, 2003. [www.ocbs.org/research/Wynne.pdf]
Different positions have been taken on what are the earliest books of the Canon. The majority of Western scholars consider the earliest identifiable stratum to be mainly prose works,A. K. Warder, Introduction to Pali, 1963, Pali Text Society, page viii the Vinaya (excluding the ParivaraL. S. Cousins in Buddhist Studies in Honour of Hammalava Saddhatissa, ed Dhammapala, Gombrich and Norman, University of Jayewardenepura, 1984, page 56) and the first four nikayas of the Sutta PitakaThe World of Buddhism, ed Bechert and Gombrich, Thames and Hudson, London, 1984, page 78; Gethin, pages 42f , and perhaps also some short verse works Gethin, The Buddha\'s Path to Awakening, E. J. Brill, Leiden, 1992 such as the Suttanipata.Cousins, loc. cit.However, some scholars, paricularly in Japan, maintain that the Suttanipata is the earliest of all Buddhist scriptures, followed by the Itivuttaka and Udana.Nakamura, Indian Buddhism, Japan, 1980, reissued by Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1987, 1989, page 27. However, some of the developments in teachings may only reflect changes in teaching that the Buddha himself adopted, during the 45 years that the Buddha was teachingas the Buddha taught for 45 years, some signs of development in teachings may only reflect changes during this period. - An introduction to Buddhism, Peter Harvey, 1990, p.3.
Most of the above scholars would probably agree that their early books include some later additions.Bechert and Gombrich; Warder, Introduction to Path of Discrimination, 1982, Pali Text Society, page xxix On the other hand, some scholars have claimedCousins, "Pali oral literature", in Buddhist Studies, ed Denwood and Piatigorski, Curzon Press, London, 1982/3; Harvey, page 83; Gethin, page 48; The Guide, Pali Text Society, page xxvii that central aspects of late works are or may be much earlier.
According to the Sinhalese chronicles, the Pali Canon was written down in the reign of King Vattagamini (Vaṭṭagāmiṇi) (1st century B.C.E.) in Sri Lanka, at the Fourth Buddhist council. Most scholars hold that little if anything was added to the Canon after this,Harvey, page 3; Warder, Path of Discrimination, Pali Text Society, pages xxxixf; Gethin, Path, page 8 though Schopen questions this.
The climate of Theravada countries is not conducive to the survival of manuscripts. Apart from brief quotations in inscriptions and a two-page fragment from the eighth or ninth century found in Nepal, the oldest manuscripts known are from late in the fifteenth century,Hinüber, Handbook of Pali Literature, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, 1996, page 5. and there is not very much from before the eighteenth.[1]
The first complete printed edition of the Canon was published in Burma in 1900, in 38 volumes.Günter Grönbold, Der buddhistische Kanon: eine Bibliographie, Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, 1984, page 12; as noted there and elsewhere, the 1893 Siamese edition was incomplete The following editions of the Pali text of the Canon are readily available in the West.
No one edition has all the best readings, and scholars must compare different editions.Cone, Dictionary of Pali, volume I, PTS, 2001
Translation: Pali Canon in English Translation, 1895- , in progress, 43 volumes so far, Pali Text Society, Bristol; for details of these and other translations of individual books see the separate articles.
Selections: see List of Pali Canon anthologies.
As noted above, the Canon consists of three pitakas.
Details are given below. For fuller information, see standard references on Pali literature.Norman, Pali Literature, Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden, 1983; Hinüber,op. cit.
The first category, the Vinaya Pitaka, is mostly concerned with the rules of the sangha, both monks and nuns. The rules are preceded by stories telling how the Buddha came to lay them down, and followed by explanations and analysis. According to the stories, the rules were devised on an ad hoc basis as the Buddha encountered various behavioral problems or disputes among his followers. This pitaka can be divided into three parts.
The second category is the Sutta Pitaka (literally "basket of threads", or of "the well spoken"; Sanskrit: Sutra Pitaka, following the former meaning) which consists primarily of accounts of the Buddha\'s teachings. The Sutta Pitaka has five subdivisions or nikayas.
The contents of this nikaya vary somewhat between different editions of the Canon. The "standard" list, given in most western sources,Pali Text Society; Norman; Hinüber; Harvey, Appendix; Lamotte, History of Indian Buddhism, 1958, English tr, Oriental Institute, Catholic University of Louvain, 1988 contains the following.
However, some editions contain in addition some works that have been described by western scholars as paracanonical or semicanonical.
The following works are included in the Sixth Council edition of the Canon,The Guide, Pali Text Society, 1962, page xii; Hinüber including the new transcript from Thailand.([2]).
The first two of these, but not the third, are included in the Sinhalese (printed) edition. All are omitted from the Thai edition. Inclusion in printed editions is not the same as canonicity (cf. Apocrypha). Professor George Bond of Northwestern University says of the first of these books that some Theravadins regard it as quasi-canonical, others as canonical, especially in Burma.Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, ed Potter, volume VII, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, 1996 About 1800, the head of the Burmese sangha regarded at least the first two of these books as canonical.JPTS, volume XXVIII, pages 61f On the other hand, at least one recent Burmese teacher has not.Rewata Dhamma, The Buddha and His Disciples, Dhamma-Talaka Pubns, Birmingham, 2001, page 89
Ancient style of scripture used for the Pali Canon
The third category, the Abhidhamma Pitaka (literally "beyond the dhamma", "higher dhamma" or "special dhamma", Sanskrit: Abhidharma Pitaka), is a collection of texts which give a systematic philosophical description of the nature of mind, matter and time. There are seven books in the Abhidhamma Pitaka.
The traditional position is that the Abhidhamma is the absolute teaching, while the suttas are adapted to the hearer. Most scholars describe the abhidhamma as an attempt to systematize the teachings of the suttas: Harvey,loc. cit. Gethin.Foundations, page 44 Cousins says that where the suttas think in terms of sequences or processes the abhidhamma thinks in terms of specific events or occasions."Pali oral literature", page 7
The other two main canons in use at the present day are the Tibetan Kangyur and the Chinese Buddhist Canon. The former is in about a hundred volumes and includes versions of the Vinaya Pitaka and the Dhammapada (the latter confusingly called Udanavarga) and of parts of some other books. The standard modern edition of the latter is the Taisho published in Japan, which is in a hundred much larger volumes. It includes both canonical and non-canonical (including Chinese and Japanese) literature and its arrangement does not clearly distinguish the two. It includes versions of the Vinaya Pitaka, the first four nikayas, the Dhammapada, the Itivuttaka and the Milindapanha and of parts of some other books. These Chinese and Tibetan versions are not usually translations of the Pali and differ from it to varying extents, but are recognizably the "same" works. On the other hand, the Chinese abhidharma books are different works from the Pali Abhidhamma Pitaka, though they follow a common methodology.
Looking at things from the other side, the bulk of the Chinese and Tibetan canons consists of Mahayana sutras and tantras, which, apart from a few tantras,Most notably, a version of the Atanatiya Sutta (from the Digha Nikaya) is included in the tantra (Mikkyo, rgyud) divisions of the Taisho and of the Cone, Derge, Lhasa, Lithang, Narthang and Peking (Qianlong) editions of the Kangyur: Skilling, Mahasutras, volume I, Parts I & II, 1997, Pali Text Society, Bristol, pages 84n, 553ff, 617ff. have no equivalent in the Pali Canon.
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In addition to Ko Lay\'s book above, two other books are devoted to detailed accounts of the Canon:
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